Understanding and Applying the Benefits of Learning Organizations Essay Example for Free

Understanding and Applying the Benefits of Learning Organizations Essay With today’s increasing challenges created by diversity and proliferation of information, organizations are continuously adapting to address these developments and relate these trends with the overall objective of promoting its values and principles. At the same time, there has been a commitment among institutions and organizations to bridge the gap brought about by cultural differences and conflict. It is through this area that they seek to create an environment where active learning and fostering elements of participation take place. Operating on this idea, there is a need towards creating an environment wherein collective responsibility and accountability is fostered. By applying this concept, better appreciation can be deciphered and lead towards greater application of an organization’s overall purpose. In the end, by recognizing the relevance of values, goals and practices and supplementing it with an appropriate leadership style, it can actively facilitate effective interplay of power among members and augment the needed areas for change. Organizational Learning vs. Learning Organizations Prior to dwelling into the analysis of the concept, it is essential to differentiate the term organizational learning with learning organizations. This is important because it can give out the necessary parameters where this term functions and how it can create the viable opportunities for application. Looking at it, the term organizational learning circumvents around the initiative to develop and enhance processes associated to increase effectiveness in both production and output. It operates in such a way that â€Å"organizations have invested much energy in making improvements in company performance using TQM, reengineering, external consultants and a host of other techniques concerned with the continuous improvement processes† (Dar-El, 2000, p. 186). On the other hand, the term learning organizations is a relatively new concept that seeks to create a move towards change in a more holistic setup. â€Å"Learning organizations [are] organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to see the whole together† (Smith, 2001, p. 1). It is in this area that the people conceptualize on creating a framework that is admissive and responsive to the challenges given. With these given, it can be argued that these two practices have different outlook towards the facilitation of learning and improvement. Though these two ideas may be similar in the promotion of change, it has become divergent on how it can be applied and implemented within an organizational setup. â€Å"The literature on organizational learning has concentrated on the detached collection and analysis of the processes involved in individual and collective learning inside organizations; whereas the learning organizations literature has an action orientation, and is geared toward using specific diagnostic and evaluative methodological tools which can help to identify, promote and evaluate the quality of learning processes inside organizations† (Smith, 2001, p. 1). Application Applying the concepts given in my professional practice as an educator, there have been several facets and elements that can characterize it as a learning organizations. Among these principles that shall be elaborated include: (1) mission and vision, (2) values and principles, (3) communication/dialogue, (4) feedback mechanism, and (5) leadership. These facets have been instrumental towards guiding both my educational institution and as an educator to actively address the challenges of 21st century education and promote an environment wherein not only the student achieves growth but also the organization I work for. Lastly, these components allow active measurements that both coincide with standards and increasing needs of students as far as accountability and responsibility is concerned. Mission and Vision One important aspect that makes my institution be characterized under learning organization is having the effective mission and vision. This element is essential because it serves as a benchmark and foundation of how it can address the needs for improvement. By elaborating on the core values that can impart education to students and allow the institution to grow in the process can guarantee that it is adherent to both standards and change. Likewise, this initiative allows both administrators and educators to take a step closer to transformative education and creating values that is responsive to student objectives and the hurdles associated with the practice (First and Way, 1995). Similarly, under this facet, the incorporation of core values are then utilized and synchronized towards intensifying ways and methods in making the organization evolve and grow in the process of education. It outlines the essential models that will allow such mission and vision to be realized. Seeing the process, â€Å"it encompasses the passions, drives and motivating factors that propel the organization into the future† (E-How, 2004, p. 1). In the end, these actions not only cultivate the needs of the present times but also outline the necessary parameters for future practice in both education and organizational growth. Seeing this, the institution that I am part of considers this importance that is why it has aligned its mission and vision to actively respond to the need of the school to learn and find ways to improve. That is why it has abolished and created new practices that are deemed significant to this overall objective. Values and Specific Objectives Another significant aspect why I consider my organization geared towards learning is having the effective values and principles. Understanding these two concepts, it can be argued that they are the facets that make the mission and vision become applicable in the educational environment. By actively aligning these standards towards organizational learning, it can generate and create educators and students who are responsive to the challenges of 21st century education. â€Å"When the values of the organization are focused on the higher levels of consciousness and employees are focused on the lower levels of consciousness, employees are encouraged to grow and develop† (Barett, 2003, p. 4). Applying this principles in my organization, I can argue that majority of our school’s objectives adheres to the idea of learning organizations. The values and objectives are actively aligned to standards and cultivate the capabilities of educators to provide instruction. At the same time, it provides mechanisms wherein administrators can actively incorporate new values that is considered essential not only on the growth of the students but also on the educational institution. Lastly, it presents several programs and mechanisms that allow these objectives to be realized. By allowing these methods to be applied with considerable consideration on feedback and monitoring, it allows the school to hone its policies which in turn leads to growth and learning. Imparting Communication into Practice Communication is also another crucial element in the practice of learning organizations. This process allows the creation of new patterns and methods that can be beneficial in practice. Such practice can serve as a medium wherein the goals and vision can be administered and facilitated. â€Å"Communication methods that convey the essence of the vision vary from formal meetings, to publication and casual conversation† (E-How, 2004, p. 1). By realizing that these processes are possible, the organization can apply its objectives and advance on the interplay of power using different mediums of interaction and facilitation with an end goal becoming learning organizations (Bamburg, 2000). Such practice makes the overall goal easier and compliments the overall intention of introducing change. Opening up avenues for dialogue and exchange of ideas can also provide the needed boost in facilitating conflict resolutions that affects performance and ability to perform goals and objectives. At the same time, by incorporating a standardized way of engaging with others, individuals and groups realize the essence of what truly matters and deepens their relationship with each other. This then in turn results towards further advancement and learning. â€Å"When people talk and listen to each other this way, they create a field of alignment that produces tremendous power to invent new realities in conversations, and to bring about these new realities in action† (Kofman and Senge, 2006, p. 33). In our educational institution, there had been several ways that the school created to reinforce dialogue not only with teachers but also on other important actors within the community. This process allows each party to rethink and analyze the current strategies at play and formulate new strategies that can be employed which will strengthen and intensify the level of cooperation among groups involved. At the same time, there exist both formal and informal arenas wherein educators, administrators and related parties can point out and further their interests concerning organizational development. In our aspiration to become learning organizations, we had realized that we must use communication and dialogue to further our interests and promote administer our target and expected outcomes. Creating Feedback Mechanisms The inclusion of feedbacks in every organization is another relevant component in attaining continued growth and expansion in learning organizations. By allowing this practice to be incorporated within the framework of every institution, it allows insight on instruments that matter and find new ways to redefine on methods that are considered to be obsolete or ineffective. â€Å"Recognizing success and failures helps create a shared learning within the organization that continues to drive the organization towards becoming a learning organization† (E-How, 2004, p. 1). Under this process involves several strategies that can introduce and incorporate the values and objectives in practice. It can range from documentation towards training which overall outlines the relevant areas that can shift from traditional actions into becoming a group that is holistic, administrative, and encompassing (Szostek, 2002). Likewise, this initiative calls for active and responsible ways of enacting organizational objectives and policies. By allowing feedback to come into play, it ensures that efficient measurements are given to actively gauge both the direction and response an organization has made in achieving its objectives. â€Å"When successful methods are developed, recognizing the importance of modeling those successes throughout the organization creates the paradigm of a learning organization† (E-How, 2004, p. 1). Considering this application in my present organization, I feel that the school provides several instruments that can provide avenues for learning organizations. Not only does it give out measurable objectives but it also caters to increasing chances for all parties to respond to the scheme implemented. In this process, there are available mechanisms that will actively measure the performance of teachers given to administrators and parents. It presents criteria of what things are relevant and important in the classroom. At the organizational level, we teachers are given a feedback form to determine the feasibility of student and school programs and what other issues need to be improved and developed. These methods enable us to continuously adapt not only to student needs but also incorporate on new ways to improve the current system. Realizing the Significance of Leadership Every organization for it to pursue its objectives and goals, it must have an entity that serves as a guide in paving its direction. It must be able to allocate the needed resources and recognize the significance of each actor in the attainment of its vision and mission. Seeing this, as the elements of learning organizations come into place, it requires an important component to strengthen and bind these together; leadership. In such manner â€Å"Learning organizations use shared leadership principles to maximize their resources and develop leadership capacity within individuals† (Kansas State University, 1998, p. 1). At the same time, the application of leadership style does not solely rely on a single approach. Rather, it must be a mixture of several strategies that seek to promote and intensify the practice of learning organizations. These approaches in turn must also take into consideration the background, history, affiliations, and culture of members to become encompassing and facilitative of each actors needs (Dar-El, 2000). By catering into these principles, the leader can now set programs and mechanisms that can establish a firm foundation for learning to take place in different levels. Lastly, the leader must be able to capture the needs of all actors involved in an organization. He/she must outline the issues revolving not only within the institutional arena but also focus action in enhancing group dynamics. This diversity of issues thus requires a myriad of approaches to make it adaptive and resilient to change. â€Å"A comprehensive view of a learning organization is that it is an organization in which learning begins at the level of the individual, proceeds through the level of the team, and is codified and stored at the level of processes and systems† (Kansas State University, 1998, p. 1) In the end, it clearly assumes that the overall process of learning organizations revolve not only on one level but on various dimensions that effective leadership can only control and provide. In applying this tenet in our educational institution, we in the school together share the dimensions of leadership that is mentioned. As an educator, I am not only tasked and responsible for student growth but at the same time I should seek for opportunities wherein I can contribute in the academic and professional realm. I believe that my actions together with other educators can contribute to the overall goal of achieving learning organizations in a collective manner. This form of collaborative setup is what makes our institution dynamic and susceptible to challenges. Also, our educational institution tries to reach out and take into consideration the relevant contribution of group dynamics and other actors in the process of achieving our goals and objectives. Not only shall this outlines further cooperation in enhancing education, it also gives the institution new insights to make facilitation and instruction better; thus creating an effective learning organization. Conclusion The call for learning organizations has increased opportunities for many individuals and groups to maximize and realign their goals to supplement this objective. Due to this, it has allowed the creation of processes and outputs that is more dynamic and effective in practice. Not only does this contribute to a renewed interest in organizational dynamics but also allowed the interplay of dialogue, power and administration be geared towards further growth and development in a holistic manner. References Bamburg, J. D. Learning, Learning Organizations, and Leadership: Implications for the Year 2050. Retrieved April 20, 2009 from, http://www. newhorizons. org/trans/bamburg. htm Barrett, R. (2003) The Importance of Values Alignment. Retrieved April 20, 2009. 1-4 Dar-El, E. (2000) Chapter 9: Learning Organizations in Human Learning. (US; Springer) Retrieved April 20, 2009. 185 – 210. E-How (2004) How to Develop a Learning Organization. Retrieved April 20, 2009 from, http://www. ehow. com/how_2263534_develop-learning-organization. html First, J. A. and Way, W. L. (1995) Parent Education Outcomes: Insights in Transformative Learning in Family Relations. 44 no. 1 Retrieved April 20, 2009. 104-109 Kansas State University (1998) Leadership in a learning organization. Retrieved April 20, 2009 from, http://www. oznet. ksu. edu/leads/FACT%20Sheets/fact9. pdf Kofman, F. and Senge, P. M. (2006) Communities of Commitment: The Heart of Learning Organizations in Learning Organizations: Developing Cultures for Tomorrow’s Workplace. ed. Sharita Shawla and John Renesch. (US; Productivity Press) 15 44 Smith, M. (2001) The learning organization in infed. Retrieved April 20, 2009 from, http://www. infed. org/biblio/learning-organization. htm Szostek, L. (2002) Creating the Learning Organization. Retrieved April 20, 2009 from, http://www. businessknowhow. com/manage/learningorg. htm

Second Language Learning And Age Related Factors English Language Essay

Second Language Learning And Age Related Factors English Language Essay Age is one of the most important affective factors in Second Language Acquisition(SLA). There is some consensus among SLA researchers that age as an affective factor that brings about different performance stages in second language learning. Most experts also agree that individual learners learn differently depending on many variables like learning opportunities, the motivation to learn, individual differences and learning styles in second language acquisition. However, there is little consensus as to how far individuals of the same age group of learners follow a similar and/or linear pattern of language acquisition. The question of how developmental stages interact with individual learning differences is still a question of great debate. It is generally believed that younger learners have certain advantages over older learners in language learning. The common notion is that younger children learn L2 easily and quickly in comparison to older children (Ellis, 2008; Larsen-Freeman, 200 8; Mayberry Lock, 2003). The relationship between age and success in SLA, though complex in nature, is linked to the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH). CPH, also known as the sensitive period, is defined as the period during which a child can acquire language easily, rapidly, perfectly, and without instruction(Richards Schmidt, 2002, p.145). The CPH suggests that a period of time, between birth and somewhere around the age when a child enters puberty, exists in which the learning a second language can be accomplished more rapidly and easily than times falling outside of this period i.e. post puberty (Larsen-Freeman Long, 2008).SLA theories and research have explained the impact of age in second language acquisition. As reported by Light bown and Spada (2008), learning depends on learners characteristics and the environment. Their findings suggested that older learners have a higher level of problem solving and metalinguistics abilities than younger learners. Researchers discoveries Researchers have focused on learners pronunciation, syntax and grammatical morphemes. Mark Patkowski (1982) examined the level of spoken English of sixty-seven immigrants to the U.S. His finding was that pre-puberty learners acquire second language better than post-puberty learners. He also pointed out that two other factors-length of residence and amount of instruction-are inseparable from the age factor. Johnson and Newport (quoted in Light bown Spada, 2008) found native-like language abilities and the performance levels lower in older children than younger in a study of forty-six Chinese and Koreans speakers. On the other hand, Snow and Hoefnagel-Hohle (1982), from their research carried in Holland, concluded that adults learned faster than children and the rate of second language learning was higher. David Singleton(2003) also declared that the tendency for younger learners to do better in the long run in the matter of second language lexical acquisition is no more than a tendenc y (p. 22). In this paper, an attempt is made to study and analyze the age related research on the basis of critical period hypothesis and other relevant variables. The key question in this paper is how age affects second language acquisition. Do people of the same age group possess the same learning characteristics and learn in the same ratio in SLA? Are there any certain features that the researchers have agreed upon regarding the age factor in SLA and CPH? Critical period The notion of critical period for a second language acquisition has been associated with several hypotheses. Some researchers have focused on the view that the younger learners as the better learners whereas others opine the older learners as the better learners. However, there are different perspectives on how the children and adults learn a foreign or second language. Adults naturally find themselves in such situations that demand more complex language and expression of more complicated ideas whereas children lack pressure and maturity in second language learning. The Experiments David Singleton (1989) offered a number of proposals related to age and second language acquisition. The most popular notions are the younger =the better and the older =the better (Singleton, p. 31). He, on the basis of previous studies and research on age factor, focused on learners pronunciation skill and other linguistics features. There are a number of research to support the younger the better hypothesis. Yamanda et al. (qtd. in Singleton, 1989) studied 30Japanese elementary school pupils of seven to ten ages old. These students did not have any previous experience of English. The researchers used a list of 40 English words and recorded the rate of success of the students. Their finding was that more than average older learners decreased with age i.e. the older the age the lower the score. Furthermore, Mark S. Patkowski (1982) carried out a research on 67 highly educated immigrants to the United States from various backgrounds. In his control subjects, 33 subjects were those who had come to the United States before the age of 15 (pre-puberty group) and 34 subjects who were post-puberty group with similar backgrounds. He examined the spoken English of the subjects, and analyzed a difference between learners who began to learn English before puberty and those who began learning English later after puberty (Patkowski, 1982, p.58). His results showed a strong negative relationship between age of arrival and syntactic rating. He concluded that the pre-puberty group was better in language learning than the post-puberty group. He further addressed: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the only factor which was highly associated with the level of syntactic proficiency attained by learners was the age at which acquisition of English began. Practice and instructional variables showed little or no association with the dependent variables. The result, then, appeared to strongly support the hypothesis of an age-related limitation on the ability to acquire full command of a second language. (Patkowski, 1982, p. 59) He also concluded that the age factor is highly related to other several factors like the numbers of years spent in the United States, amount of information exposure to English and amount of formal instruction in English. One of the supporting evidences in the field of second language acquisition comes from the experience of immigrants. A group of researchers have shown a relationship between age of entry, length of residence and level of language acquisition (Singleton 1989; Ekstrand 1982; Asher Gracia 1989; Lightbown Spada 2008). Asher and Gracia examined acquisition of pronunciation of 71 Cuban immigrants to California. The subjects were of aged groups from seven to 19 years. The majority of them had been in the United States for about five years. They concluded that not one of the 71 Cuban subjects was judged to have American native pronunciation (qtd. in Singleton, 1989, p. 83). They also figured out a fact that the younger a child had been when entering the United States, the higher the probability of a native like accent. The Lenneburgian notion of CPH that puberty as a milestone for SLA has been reversed by the other researchers. Carroll (1963) suggested that the ability to acquire a native like accent declines toward puberty. Ekstrand (1982) carried out a research on age and length of residence of 2400 Swedish pupils. The test consisted of six areas including pronunciation, diction, listening, reading, oral and written production. Ekstrand grouped the total population into 26 categories according to third month of year of birth and observed effects of age and effects of length of residence in the process of second language. He found that language learning ability goes almost linearly with age. He also noticed that social and emotional adjustment did not seem to be related to age. He deduced that age was strongly correlated with grade levels because quality and quantity of instruction was an important factor in second language learning. For Ekstrand, the more developed the brain was, the better it was suited for second language learning. Susan Oyama (1976) studied 60 male Italian immigrants who entered to the United States at ages ranging from six to 20. She examined the degree of American accent and proficiency in English listening. She concluded that age is as an important factor to achieve native like accent. The youngest arrivals performed a better accent. She has shown the relation of age and listening comprehension as follows: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦those subjects who began learning English before age 11 showed comprehension score similar to those of native speakers, whereas later arrivals did less well; those who arrived after the age of 16 showed markedly lower comprehension scores than the native. (Oyama, 1982, p. 23) A further immigrant study appeared in support of the younger the better hypothesis. Johnson and Newport (qtd. in Lightbown Spada, 2008) selected 46 Chinese and Korean experimental subjects in their research. They tested some rules of English morphology and syntax among the participants of aged groups from three to 15 and with those aged groups from 17 to39. The result was that those who began learning later did not have native like language abilities and their performance on the test varied more widely. Robert Dekeyser (2000) conducted a replication of the Johnson and Newport with a group of Hungarian immigrants to the United States. On the contrary, he concluded that adult learners were better than the younger ones. The second strong hypothesis is that older learners are more successful that than younger language learners in SLA. This notion was highly supported by a number of short term experimental researchers. These studies and research were based on teaching projects and second language immersion programs. Some of these studies have highlighted adolescents and adults of different ages where results have indicated that the older learners are far better than the younger ones. In 1967 Ashor and Price (as cited in Singleton, 1989) have carried out an experiment with96 students from the second, fourth and eighth grades of a school and 37 undergraduate students from a college. The subjects did not have any previous knowledge of Russian, the targeted language. After three short trainings conducted in Russian language, the results showed that the eight graders performed significantly better than the second graders and the fourth graders. They also noticed a consistently positive relationship with advancing age because of above average mental ability of the adults. Politzer and Weiss (as quoted in Singleton, 1989) have conducted another study in which they found that an advantage of SLA for older learners than younger ones. Their subjects were second, fifth, seventh and ninth graders. The experimental procedures were consisted of an auditory discrimination test, a pronunciation test and a reading test among 257 pupils. They recorded a gradual improvement of scores with an increase age in all three tests. Similarly, Olson and Samuel in the 1970s (qtd. in Singleton, 1989) have investigated the relative capacity of native English speakers in three different age groups on 20 elementary pupils, 20 junior high school pupils and 20 college students. On the test of pronunciation, it was found that two older groups performed significantly better than the elementary age group. In other studies on age and SLA, many researchers have mentioned a similar finding that adult subjects performed better than the children (Bland Keislar, 1966; Smith Braine, 1973; Burstall her colleagues, 1974; Singleton, 1989). Bland and Keislar took six fifth graders and four kindergartners in their study. They conducted an individualized program of oral French. They mentioned that amongst the fifth graders this time ranged from 4.5 to 11 hours, the mean being 6.9 hours, whereas amongst the kindergarteners the ranges from 12.5 to 17.5 hours and the mean was 15.1 hours (Qtd. in Singleton 1989, p. 98). In other words, the younger learners took more than twice as long as the older learners. A large scale experiment was conducted by Burstall and her colleagues (Qtd. in Singleton 1989) in the 1970s. The study included three age groups of pupils from selected primary schools in England and Wales. Among the 11 year old, 13 year old and 16 year old students, the results indicated that older students dramatically achieved higher score in listening and speaking tests than the younger ones. Other researchers of SLA interested in assessing phonological skills of learners suggest a common belief that younger learners acquire a native like accent in the target language. Dunkel and Pillet (reported in Singleton, 1989) compared the proficiency in French between elementary school pupils and beginning students of French from the university. They found that the younger learners pronunciation was better than that of the older ones. However, in both written and aural tests, the university students had better performance than the younger ones. In another study, Fathman and Precup (reported in Singleton, 1989) tested oral proficiency in English on 20 children and 20 adults in a formal setting in Mexico. Their finding also brought a similar conclusion that the children scored better in English pronunciation than the adults but the adults scored better then the children in syntax. Some studies, on the other hand, have focused on the issues of culture and variations of accent among the speakers of the same language. Lobov (1920) has claimed that people rarely acquire the accent of a particular region if they move into that region after puberty (qtd. in Singleton, 1989, p. 111). While considering younger learners in long run, Stephen Krashen (1979) has forwarded three proposals in the domain of morph syntax. Krashens positions in SLA are as following: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and morphological development faster than children (where time and exposure are held constant). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Older children acquire faster than younger children (again time and exposure are held constant). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Acquirers who begin natural exposure to second languages during childhood generally achieve higher second language proficiency than those beginning as adults. (qtd. In Singleton, 1989, p. 117) Krashen et al. studied syntax and morphology of children in formal and informal learning contexts. They claimed that older learners proceed through the early stages of second language grammatical development more quickly than younger learners. Anan Fathman (1982) observed a difference in the rate of learning English phonology, morphology and syntax based on the differences in age. She focused on the children aged 11 to 15 years who received significantly higher scores in learning the morphology and syntax of a second language than those children of aged six to ten years. One of the most significant studies related to age and SLA comes from the research of Catherine E. Snow and Marian Hoefnagel-Hohle (1982). They investigated 51 English subjects in five age groups whose target language was Dutch. The subjects accomplishments at three points in the Netherlands were compared with the accomplishments of two advanced speakers of Dutch and native speakers. The beginners were tested three times at 4 to 5 month intervals, but the advanced learners were tested only once. The subjects were tested individually at school or at home in various categories-pronunciation, auditory discrimination, morphology, sentence repetition, sentence translation, sentence judgment, Peabody picture vocabulary test, story comprehension and storytelling. The results of their study gave strong evidence against the critical period hypothesis. All the tests showed a rapid learning by the 12 to 15 years old and adults during the first few months of acquisition. T hey mentioned: The adultsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦fell increasingly behind because their subsequent improvement was very slow. The teenagers had achieved almost native performance extremely quickly, within a few months of starting to speak Dutchà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.The crucial findings of relevance for evaluating the CPH were that the 3 to 5 years old scored consistently worse than the older groups on all the test and that the 12 to 15 years old showed the most rapid acquisition of all the skills tested. (Snow Hoefnagel-Hohle, 1982, p. 103) The Results Their finding rejected the notion of younger learners as better learners in L2 acquisition. In the second study, Snow and Hoefnagel-Hohle took 81 subjects. Of them, 51 were beginners and31were advanced learners. In the result, it was found that in all cases the adolescent and adult subjects outperformed the younger subjects. The research has shown non-liner relationship between age and second language acquisition. Whether the long term or short term studies are conducted on syntax and morphology or pronunciation of a second language, there are as many conflicting views as the researchers. To address this situation, it is opted to quote Singleton (1989) that beyond the strict terms of Krashen et. al.s hypothesis the evidence concerning short term versus long term language attainment is more confused (p.119) and there is no common argument agreed by all the research. David Birdsong (2006) has studied theoretical issues and empirical findings of age related research of second language acquisition. He had found that brain memory, learning conditions and second language processing speed are connected with age factor. He has pointed out that morphological changes and cognitive process are different in young and adult learners. The next component besides Critical Period Hypothesis of second language acquisition is the variables related to the age factor. These variables can be motivation, anxiety, self confidence, attitude, learning styles and so on. They are responsible in language acquisition in both children and adults. Their direct relationship to age as an indicator of language learning has been studied by various researchers. John Archibald (2005) has said that it is hard to say whether critical period exists or not. He argued that it is much more difficult to predict knowledge or ability in any of the other areas of communicative competence (syntax, cohesion, sociolinguistics, etc.) based on age of acquisition (Archibald, 2005, p. 420). Rather he valued individual differences, the L2 classroom, modified input, modified interaction, and learning environment in second language learning context. Mary Schleppegrell (2008) has focused on health, classroom practices and learning styles as age related factors in second language learning. She says that older adults learn a foreign language for a specific purpose to be more effective professionally, to be able to service in an anticipated foreign situation or for other instrumental reasons (Schleppegrell, 2008, p. 3). On the other hand, younger learners may not have extrinsic motivation or may not see a specific goal in learning another language. It is also noticed that children and adults do not always get the same quality and quantity of language input in both formal and informal learning settings (Lightbown Spada, 2008). It is also hard to say how these variables work as a filter or barrier in learning process of young and adults. As in Colliers study (1987) (qtd. in Singleton, 1989), the barrier of anxiety sometimes makes the adults less successful in second language. Language input is another factor linked to age. Stephen Krashen believes that the learner improves when he or she receives second language input at a level of comprehensible input (i+1). For Krashen the natural comprehension input has become the fundamental principle in SLA. This comprehensible input may change with age where older learners get an advantage over younger ones (Lightbown Spada, 2008). Conclusion Summing up, age is one of the characteristics that determine the way in which an individual learns second language. Age is highly associated with critical period in many research studies. There are a number of controversial issues related to second language acquisition and critical period hypothesis. As Singleton (2005) has predicted, a multiplicity of CPs, like mythical hydra, whose multiplicity of heads and capacity to produce new heads rendered it impossible to deal with (p. 288). He declares the end of critical period. Some researchers limited the CP between per inatality and puberty, while the others extended it after the puberty. In the realm of pedagogy, the researchers have advocated CPH into two main categories-the younger the better and the older the better. A group of researchers including Singleton, Yamanda et al., Carroll and et al, and Patkowski believed that the young learners have higher learning potentiality than the adults whereas Johnson and Newport, Dekeyser, Asher and Price, Politzer and Weiss, Olson and Samuel opined the opposite. The young learners are considered fluent in communication of the second language and achieve native like accent. Learners after the age of puberty do not acquire native like accent of a second language but have complex learning pattern. Research suggests that children and adults L2 learners pass through different developmental states in second language learning. Learning depends on the cognitive maturity and neurological factors. Julia Van Sickle and Sarah Ferris (as quoted in Singleton, 2005) have shown the relation between age and second language acquisition as, One of the dangers of the emphasis on critical periods is that it prompts us to pay too much attention to when learning occurs and too little attention to how learning might best occur (p. 105). Age is not everything in second language learning. However, factors related to the age, for example the learning opportunities, the motivation to learn, individual differences, and learning styles, are also important determining variables that affect the rate of second language learning in various developmental stages of the learners.

Nuclear Brinkmanship :: essays research papers

â€Å"The world would be a better place if†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Mutual Assured Destruction. Nuclear holocaust. The destruction of whole nations in the blink of an eye. We cannot hide from the threat that nuclear weapons pose to humanity and all life. These are not ordinary weapons, but instruments of mass annihilation that could destroy civilization and end all life on Earth. Nuclear weapons are morally and legally unjustifiable. They destroy indiscriminately - soldiers and civilians; men, women and children; the aged and the newly born; the healthy and the infirm. The world would be a far safer and better place if the Pandora’s Box of nuclear weapons had never been opened. Many historians argue that the United States began the Cold War by ending World War II with the nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Four years later, on August 9, 1949, the Soviet Union developed its own nuclear weapons. At the time, both sides lacked the means to effectively use the nuclear devices against each other. However, with the development of aircraft like the B-36 Peacemaker, both sides were gaining more ability to deliver nuclear weapons effectively. The official nuclear policy of the United States was one of "massive retaliation", as coined by President Eisenhower, which called for massive nuclear attack against the Soviet Union if they were to invade Europe. It was only with the advent of ballistic missile submarines, starting with the George Washington class submarine in 1959, that a survivable nuclear force became possible and that a second strike capability became credible. It was generally assumed that any combat in Europe would end wit h apocalyptic conclusions. An idea that has not sunk into the politicians and generals of the nuclear powers skulls is the fact that nuclear weapons are expensive. In 1983, a missile submarine cost more than the education budgets of twenty-three 3rd world countries. A comparison for nuclear weapons would be akin to that of computers: It becomes obsolete very quickly, and the state of the art technology used is astronomically maintenance expensive. Building nuclear weapons is like dumping your money in a hole: It is not going to be coming back. The world would be a far safer place had nuclear weapons not been developed. The possibilities of a small terrorist cell building a nuclear bomb and detonating it in a city are probable within the next twenty years.

A view from the bridge is set in New York City in the 1950s. :: English Literature

A view from the bridge is set in New York City in the 1950s. Arthur Miller was born October 17th 1915 in New York City. His parents were both immigrants in the United States and were originally from Sicily. Arthur’s father had a successful business but it collapsed, along with the American economy as a whole, Following the Wall Street crash, as a result, Arthur had to work as a warehouseman in order to save his fees before he was able to go to Michigan University in 1934 to study Economics and History. I think he has the same background ‘The view from the bridge’. A view from the bridge is set in New York City in the 1950s, with a Sicilian background. Sicily is the home of all the characters which is an island in Italy. The characters change from old world Sicily to new world America in the book. Sicily had been invaded a lot of times by different countries, so this made the Sicilian people develop a culture of not talking or reporting to the authority, so the people of Sicily dealt with their own problems between their communities. Sicily was a very poor country after ww2 because Italy lost the war in 1948. A view from the bridge has a theme of old world Sicily and new world America, there is a lot of masculine and famine emotion between the characters. The characters brought their culture with them from Sicily to America and one of their main rules never to broken is don’t snitch to authority, the worst crime a Sicilian can do is snitch to the authority and Sicilians either kill the person for snitching or reject the person from the Sicilian community. I think the book evolved around the Sicilian culture. Incest is another theme of the book because Rodolfo and Catherine are in love even do there cousins , Eddie began to get attracted to Catherine who was his niece and other themes in this book is obsession, desire and control. Beatrice meant a lot at first to Eddie but when he was starting to loose Catherine, Beatrice knew that Eddie is attracted to Catherine in a different way from just family love but loved her in a sexual way; I think Beatrice became jealous of Catherine because Eddie was playing more attention to Catherine and forgot all about her, I think this challenged Eddies masculinity because he wasn’t performing in bed and controlling his marriage like a masculine man should do. I think the most dramatic scenes in the play is when Eddies masculinity is challenged and the Sicilian way of life is being

Project Management Essay -- Management Information Technology

Most Project Managers come up through the ranks of an Information Technology (I.T.) department. They have mastered coding, testing. This experience helps prepare them to run projects, but there are still many unknowns for the new Project Manager. The official project request they receive is typically a vague, one-page list of objectives. In addition, I.T. Management cannot afford the time to guide the new Project Manager each step of the way. This paper will assist them in the initial stages of a project. Defining the Project: Purpose The first step in any project is to determine the purpose of the project. The project purpose should be a simple statement that is the guiding principle of the project. For example: The purpose of this project is to reduce the amount of time it takes to enter an order. Defining the Project: Requirements With the purpose in mind, the requirements for the project should be set. Often, the users will need to be contacted to clarify the requirements from their initial project request. The requirements should be in business terms, relate to organizational requirements, and be broken down by functional area. For example: * Improve the response time in Order Entry to improve customer service (Order Services Department) * Give the sales force the ability to enter orders while at the customer site to improve customer service (Sales Department) * Decrease the learning curve for new Order Entry Clerks to improve customer service and reduce training costs (Order Services Department) In each example, "improving customer service" is the organizational requirement that the project requirement relates too. The department (in parenthesis) represents the fu... .... This technique only clarifies requirements; thus, other requirement gathering methods are used in conjunction with it. Conclusion The two essential outputs of the initial stages of a project are: * Clearly defined, achievable requirements that are in step with organizational requirements * A reasonable, feasible work plan Remarks In order to complete, many projects are finding it advantageous to use a lifecycle approach. One of the reasons software project management remains a challenge is that, as has been all too frequently observed, progress in software development has not kept pace with progress in hardware development. The gap between software and hardware development is partly explained by the lack of standard methods and tools to boost the software development process. In short, "The cobbler's children have no shoes."

Federalism Essay

Although it is said that the national government is supreme the state government also has the same sovereignty on certain issues. Federalism began when the Constitution of the United States began to develop. It was a compromise of powers between state and national governments. The main reason for federalism was to be sure that one government did not hold more power over the other. So by separating the powers of the government it avoided it, as well as preserved our personal liberty. Rather than the national government getting its powers from the states, or the other way around where the state gets its power from the national government, they receive it from the people. As this is a system of government for the people, by the people. The advantages and disadvantages of federalism have always been up for debate by the people. Some argue that federalism’s advantages are that it promotes state loyalties by allowing Americans to feel connected or closeness with their state being that federalism with holds that connection because they have given power to its states. Another advantage of federalism is that it uses common sense, in the running of a country with such a diverse population like the United States. Power is given to state and local officials to deal with certain problems, as it is easier being that they understand the problems in the area and would know the best policy to put in place to solve any issues. Lastly, federalism makes certain to prevent tyranny and the separation of powers by making sure that state governments function independently if all three branches of federal government are taken control of by a person and or group. By doing this federalism implements our governmental structure of liberty. Some of Federalism’s disadvantages on the other hand are that federalism has been preventing the creation of a national policy. Rather than have a single policy on certain issues, instead the United States has multiple policies on issues which in the end causes a lot of confusion for the people. Secondly, federalism leads to the inability to appoint accountability. This being because the boundaries of the national and state government overlap, it makes it a lot harder for anyone to point blame on one of the governments specifically when policies fail. Finally, federalism continues to allow state and local areas to discriminate against race as well as the most common issue recently of allowing the discrimination of a person’s sexual preference of being gay or lesbian. Since the ratification of the Constitution American federalism has changed in so many ways. One of this ways being that before the ratification of the Constitution there was only federal and state governments, but now we have lots of governments within the federal and state. For example, we now have townships, municipals, city, and county governments. In my opinion it is great that this change has happened being that sometimes it is easier for these local governments to handle certain local issues as they know what exactly would work best for their local area to help resolve whatever problem is going on. Another thing is that the ratification of the Constitution strengthened the National government. Prior to the ratification the Articles of Confederation gave a lot of power to the states to do as they pleased. Ratification specifically laid out what states did not have the power to do. A lot of what has happened to federalism since the Constitution was ratified has been specifically based off what is happening at that moment in time. For me one major disadvantage of federalism that most relevant to me would be the discrimination against same gay marriages. This issue hits a specific nerve in me because of the close relation I have to the issue. As my mother is a lesbian, and has been with her partner for almost 15 years and though their relationship is like any other of a man and women they are not allowed to get married. I find it to be wrong that some states have legalized gay marriage whereas other such as Florida bans gay marriage and continues to discriminate against the issue. As of right now this issue is in the Supreme Court awaiting ruling and all me and my family can do is hope for the best. The federal government has definitely increased in size over the years though legislation. Every time Congress or the President establishes a federal act such as the Disabilities Act or Fair Pay Act the federal government grows in size. The same goes for every time the Supreme Court rules on a case that mandates civil liberties to all states the government grows in size and power.

Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 17109201 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 2012. 1. 5 Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness ——A Probe into the Character of Emily A Rose for Emily is a short story written by American author William Faulkner first published in the April 30, 1930 issue of Forum.It describes the tragedy of a typical southern lady, Miss Emily, who is deeply victimized in her character and mind by the conventional system of the South and patriarchy; thus even though she wants to fight, she still fails to confront and deal with the changes caused by the shock of northern industrialization all by herself and finally leads to destruction and self-destruction on the way of pursuing happiness.This essay concentrates on exploring the character of Emily with the efforts she has made for her life and especially the reasons for her failure in â€Å"fighting† from the three aspects as Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness, (the well-known phrase applied from the United States Declaration of Independence). 1. The Backup of Early Life As a descendent of the southern conventional noble family, Emily was born in the environment full of the thought of feudalism and hierarchy which makes her acquire not only the attitude of arrogance and indifference to common people, but, most importantly, the habit of obedience to her father.Before her father dies, he is the only one Emily could rely on in her family. Therefore, there should be no blame to her that she depended on her father when she was still young, just as most of us would depend on our parents during our childhood and youth. However, the fact the she gets to be thirty and is still single reveals the abnormality of the dependence. Actually, it is no longer pure dependence on her father. Instead, the dependence has developed into over obedience which then is taken advantage of by her father to control her completely under the constraint of the old southern tradition.The control is ju st described by William Faulkner as the tableau, â€Å"Miss Emily a slender figure in white in the background, her father a spraddled silhouette in the foreground, his back to her and clutching a horsewhip, the two of them framed by the back-flung front door†. The father, a typical symbol of patriarchy, clutching a horsewhip, acts as a tyrant. It’s him who holds the Griersons always a little too high for what they really are and uses his horsewhip, which exactly symbolizes patriarchy, to beat off all of the young men who come to make proposals to his daughter, Miss Emily, believing that no one is quite good enough for her.In fact, in his opinion, none of the young men are quite good enough not for his daughter, but for the old southern tradition and its dignity. He never regards Emily as an independent individual. On the contrary, he regards her as the tool to maintain their dignity in the conventional system. However, Emily has been regarding her father as the whole b ackup of her life since she was born. What’s more, she has been in this state for more than thirty years. She has long been used to this dependence and even allows this kind of dependence to conquer her strong desire for free life and love. To her, this dependence is just her whole life.Therefore, when her father dies, she cannot accept the fact because her father is her whole dependence and the dependence is just her whole life. Her father’s death has also deprived all the hope of her life. Her father and the old tradition her father represents are the root of Emily’s tragedy; thus, her father’s death should be regarded as the chance for Emily to free herself from the constraint of the conventional system. It’s the beginning of Emily’s fighting for her own life, liberty and happiness. 2. Liberty Getting rid of her father’s control is just like releasing from a prison.After a long time of being sick, she is seen again with hair cut sh ort and looks like a girl, which declares the beginning of her liberty. However, Faulkner describes her as resembling to those angels in colored church windows—sort of tragic and serene. The word of â€Å"tragic† seems to have indicated the sad ending of Emily’s life even though she has the chance to gain liberty. And the reason lies on Emily’s wrong interpretation of liberty. From the description by Faulkner, after her father’s death, the character of Emily appearing before the readers is still such an arrogant and indifferent person typically symbolizing the old tradition.It is clearly known by the readers that actually Emily never frees herself from the fetter of the conventional system even though she has gotten rid of her father’s control. However, Emily sees her liberty from a different angle. To her, liberty means to live in a way she has long been used to at her own will. Since her father died, nobody and nothing can ever take her un der control any more. Therefore, she ignores all the others’ denouncing the smell of her house, vanquishes the new generation’s demanding her taxes and rejects the newer generation’s attaching a mailbox.She still carries her head high enough—even when others all believe that she is fallen, because the way of living she has been used to is just to maintain dignity as much as she can in the environment of the old southern tradition. She refuses to free herself from the conventional system because it’s the very place she feels relatively free. In contrast, the new world with all those changes caused by the shock of northern industrialization is where she will feel unsafe, uneasy and uncomfortable.Similarly in the film The Shawshank redemption, the two people, the old log, Brooks, and one of the protagonists, Red, have much difficulty in adjusting themselves to the life outside after they get their parole from decades of imprisonment. Brooks even commi ts suicide and Red can never pea unless asking for permission. And Emily has also been imprisoned for more than thirty years which has made her long ago assimilated by the old tradition. Emily has made efforts for her life and liberty after her father’s death. Unfortunately, she interprets her liberty in the way which is against the development of the new world both in aterial and spiritual aspects. And her false interpretation is still due to the over thirty years’ imprisonment of patriarchy and the conventional system of the South. 3. The Pursuit of Happiness Even though the living style has been assimilated by the convention, there is still something that everyone is born with including Emily. That is the desire for happiness. Emily lives in her own old world but all alone. She earns liberty but lacks happiness. Therefore, when Homer Barron shows up, she believes that he is the source of her happiness and makes up her mind to grasping the slight of hope.However, the chance of gaining happiness is ruined again by the conflict between her old world and the shock of northern industrialization. What’s worse, finally she leads to the road of destruction and self-destruction by her extreme desire resulting from patriarchy and the old tradition’s severe oppression Homer Barron, a Yankee, comes from the north and symbolizes the northern industrialization, which is definitely against the old tradition and even some basic principles of Emily’s own old world such as the feature of dignity. But on the other side, he seems to Emily the hope for her happiness.As a woman oppressed by spiritual loneliness for such a long time, the desire for love and happiness is strong enough to for Emily to conquer the continual restraint of conventional hierarchical thought. As a result, she goes out of the old house, which symbolizes the convention, with her head high and together with Homer Barron with his hat cocked and a cigar in his teeth, reins a nd whip in a yellow glove driving in the glittering buggy on Sunday afternoons. She even decides to marry him by buying a complete outfit of men’s clothing regardless of all the objects and conflicts.During this period, she has gradually become deeply trapped in the love and happiness with Homer Barron. She has been oppressed by patriarchy and the southern convention for more than thirty years, and now the love she is experiencing is so unique and incomparable that it has become the whole happiness of her life and that it is impossible for her to let it go. If Homer Barron isn’t going to leave her, then the love and happiness will certainly continue. However, as the symbol of northern industrialization, Homer Barron holds a completely opposite attitude towards the relationship with Miss Emily.He just regards it as a pure way of entertainment without any responsibility, which is a sharp conflict between not only Homer and Emily, but also the morals of northern industria lization and the old southern convention. Under the pressure of the conflicts and the long-term victimization by patriarchy and the convention, Emily’s character and mind has been completely deformed. In the end, to prevent the happiness from disappearing, Emily takes drastic measures as killing Homer and let the body stay with her forever so that her love and happiness will also never leave.This measure finally destroys her whole life and leaves her a complete tragedy as well as Homer Barron. In this extraordinary short story, the character of Emily William Faulkner created has made some efforts to earn her own life and liberty and even persist in the pursuit of happiness. However, her life is based on patriarchy and the conventional system of the South for more than 30 years; the liberty she goes after is still trapped in the old tradition; and her pursuit of happiness comes across the conflicts between the southern old tradition and the shock of northern industrialization. All of these negative factors lead to the final tragic destruction. References Olga W. Vickery. The Novels of William Faulkner: A Critical Appraisal [M]. 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